The Development of the Irish High-Cross.
Historians can’t place an exact date on when high crosses first started to appear in Ireland. Although it would appear that stone crosses date from around the 8th and 9th centuries (e.g. the earliest Irish high crosses, at Kinnity, Co Offaly, have been dated to 846–862 CE (Halpen & Newman 2005). With earlier horizontal slabs depicting simple biblical scenes. Most of the older surviving stone examples date from around the 8th and 9th centuries, but it is entirely likely that there were wooden versions around before this, probably decorated with metal plates or carved-wood. They were likely a carry-on from the old Celtic practice of placing stone monuments in important or sacred places, and their functions would have been similar in many ways too; to serve as a meeting point, a focal point for ceremonies, to mark boundaries, or to declare a territory as being Christian. Some (at least) served as visual aids to help explain the stories from the bible, used to evoke piety and reflection. Unlike their predecessors however, they were not used to mark burial places and were never used as headstones (although there are some more modern headstones are shaped like high crosses, from more modern periods, and are a deliberate homage to the earlier monuments). megalithicireland.com.
Irish High Cross Sculptures (c.750-1150 CE) are located throughout Ireland, though there aren’t nearly as many in the West and South as nearer the East coast, with some of the very earliest being in the northern most part of the island of Ireland. See map below.
Most of the stone churches were too small to accommodate the large gatherings of worshippers who turned up, so ceremonies would have been held outdoors around the cross instead. This also left them more prepared in the event of a surprise raid by the Vikings, so in short, the high cross was a fairly good addition to the country!
Construction and Decoration
High crosses would have been constructed by stonemasons skilled in their craft, living and working in the monasteries. They were usually built in three parts – first, a conical or pyramid shaped base with a hollow centre; second, the cross itself, the shaft of which was slotted into the hollow centre of the base. Lastly, a capstone (finial) was added on top, although very few of these survive today. The average height was around eight feet, but there are examples in Ireland up to (almost) three times that height.
The cross was always placed in situ before the carving work was completed. This was done to save time and effort for everyone in case, for whatever reason, the cross decided not to stay erect and fell to the ground, ruining hours and hours of painstaking artistry.
Once erect, the masons would come in and complete the necessary carvings.
Nether Cross, St. Canice’s Church, Finglas, Dublin: Although not as impressive as the other crosses in this section in terms of decoration. Another early high cross example, it stands around 12 feet high and was constructed from granite, although much of its carving detail has now been weathered away, nonetheless has an interesting story. It was buried for one hundred and fifty years to protect it from the marauding English. In 1816 the reverend at the time heard the story from one of the few parishioners who still remembered the secret, and took it upon himself to unearth the cross and put it back where it belonged.
Ahenny Cross, Ahenny, Co. Tipperary: Ahenny actually has two high crosses, made of sandstone and standing around 3.5 metres high. Both are thought to be two of the earliest surviving examples in Ireland, dating from around the 8th or 9th centuries. As such they are mostly devoid of carved figures unlike the previous two crosses, and instead feature truly beautiful Celtic artwork on all sides. The bottom panel contains spirals while each arm of the cross is covered in highly detailed interlacing patterns varying in size and shape.
Clonmacnoise Cross, Clonmacnoise, Co. Offaly:
Otherwise known as the Cross of the Scriptures or King Flann’s cross, the first historical record of the high cross at Clonmacnoise dates from 957 and it was likely in existence for a few decades before then. This cross is also decorated on all four sides and from top to bottom, with especially stunning interlacing patterns along the ring. Its front panels depict the story of the crucifixion from the arrest of Christ at the bottom to the crucifixion itself in the centre.
On the other side is the last judgement, and elsewhere panels depicting riders, chariots, Christ with Peter and Paul, and plenty more that are open to interpretation. The inscription on the bottom reads ‘A prayer for Colman who had this cross erected on behalf of King Flann’.
High Crosses are a form of religious Irish sculpture unrivalled in Western European culture during the Middle Ages. Indeed, according to some, ‘these Irish crosses constitute the most significant body of free-standing sculpture produced between the collapse of the Roman Empire (c.450) and the beginning of Renaissance art in Italy (c.1400)’. (visual-arts-cork.com)
De Paor expounds in ‘Early Developments of Irish Crosses … ‘ that many academics assume that the early church expanded in a uniform manner and with uniform structure and art/culture, but that is patent nonsense. Various areas, and most certainly such an outlying island such as Ireland had its own variety of structures and influences. Bob Quinn 2004, and Barry Cunliff 2018, both write about the continuing influences of Turkish, Laventine, and Arabic influences pertaining in Ireland, and indeed in the neighbouring British Isles, that exerted varying degrees of impact in/on the Irish church. The tradition of bringing the pre-Christian religion’s artwork to bear isn’t such a big step. Françoise Henry in his 1964 book Irish High Crosses (Dublin; Three Candles 15-16) points out that the Ahenny crosses along with others in the Ossary group have been dated due to their association with 8th century metal art forms. Henry’s views have generally been followed though Richardson in “An Introduction to Irish High Crosses’ November 1990, asserted a noted of caution that the crosses may in fact date from a later point, possibly 8th – 9th C. may be more accurate.
In conjunction with “Celtic” metalwork art and the outstanding illuminated manuscripts, Irish High Cross sculpture represents Ireland’s third major contribution to the History of Art in general, and to the history of Irish art in particular. It is unclear if the Pictish Stones of 6th to 9th century influenced the Irish-sculpturers, or the other way round. There is also evidence of High Cross design in 7th century Northumbria that may also have influenced Irish design, however these crosses in Britain had relief decoration was a mixture of religious figures along with some sections of decoration such as vine-scrolls, along with the Irish convention of knotwork and an interlace found on styles of ‘insular style’ that is also to be seen on later media such as the great books of religious art and even the metalwork metalwork. (Calvert, J.A. 1981)
Possibly the oldest ‘high cross’ the 7th C. Donagh Cross, at Carndonagh, on Inishowen Peninsula, Co Donegal, is considered Ireland’s best low-relief stone cross carving and to be the oldest outside mainland Europe. It is a simple cross with two ‘guard stones’. These ‘guards’ may be a throw-back to pre-Christian belief of the strength of three. Or it may symbolise the two thieves at the crucifixion.
Allegedly on the grounds of a church built by St Patrick (?!) for the brother of the Bishop of Clogher. The art-historian F. Henry places the cross on the ‘braid pattern’ of the Book of Durrow from 660CE. The central cross, he postulated, is the crossover point from lying-slab to upright cross, or such as Fahan Mura, a precursor to the typical Irish High Crosses. An upright carved stone without the cruciform shape (also in Co Donegal). This ‘St Mura’s Cross also has the intertwining ribbon design and the flying rising bird, symbolic of the risen Christ, and an unusual Greek dating from Council of Toledo in 633.
High crosses may even have come from the Shamanic belief that interference with the shape of a stone would upset the spirit of the stone – for good, or evil. Perhaps therefore two sentinels were needed for earlier stones.
Although the circle/wheel of the cross gives it strength and the arms support, there is also the possibility that the circle may be part of the transition from a solar god/religion and helped make new symbol more acceptable, but then why continue with it so long, when even the earliest slabe and raised stones with a rough crucifix didn’t have the circle?
The “greatest”, or “classic”, Irish high crosses can be found at Durrow Abbey, the Abbey of Kells, and at Monasterboice. These high crosses are decorated with panels inscribed with biblical themes; and are thought to be influenced from late antiquity and early medieval Rome. Muiredach’s High Cross – “National Monuments in State Care: Ownership & Guardianship, Louth”.
At 7m tall the Monasterboice (The Tall Cross) cross is certainly the tallest high cross in Ireland. This ‘most classic’ high cross contains the largest corpus of biblical sculpture in all of Europe, with the Old testement on the East side, with the Book of Revelation, and the New Testement on the West side – so ‘reading’ it, one would face East – towards the Holy Land.
The art historian Roger Stalley referred to the sculptor of the cross as the ‘Muiredach Master’. The theme of the cross is Christ the King, Lord of the Earth. It is worth noting that Macalister points out that until the 13th centuary no depiction of the Christian god was allowed bar a hand extending from the clouds. On Panel B (Macallister’s illustrations: ) a panel inserted under the Westernmost arm of the cross depicts Dextra Dei facing down on the believers. (Footnote: some claim this is the origin of the hand on the Ulster flag/fleg.)
Other scenes, the flowing water is hughly unusual on High Crosses, but not at all unusual in the Roman catacombs. (Roe, H. 1981)
Though the arrival of the Anglo-Normans in the late twelfth century heralded the beginning of the end of high cross production in Ireland, the approximately 250 monuments that still survive on the Irish landscape today hold a special significance and to many, have become an emblem of Gaelic identity. (Brittannica.com). Many were damaged, buired even, at the time of Cromwell’s invasion 1648/49. Reputedly the high cross at Kells was used to hang ‘Irish rebels’.
The earliest crosses in Ireland were made of wood and metal and probably much smaller than the great stone monuments we see today. The British examples are generally much smaller. It was generally accepted that the Western Ossory group were amongst the earliest examples of High Crosses to be found in Ireland. Their design imitates the wood and metal crosses before them; but a recent study suggests they may not be 8th century but possibly mid 9th century. These crosses are mainly found within a few miles of each other at Kilkieran, Kilree, Killamery and the finest examples at Ahenny.
Painted or not? A few, like the high cross at Castledermot, display both types. Debate continues as to whether these scenes were painted. There is plenty of evidence of ancient Greek marble temples being painted, as well as Byzantine statues, so it’s a fair suggestion to make that high crosses could have been painted too, although there is no definitive proof either way. If they were painted, the medieval artists involved would probably have used similar colours to those found on metalwork of the same period, such as dark reds, greens, blues and yellows. visual-arts-cork.com/irish-sculpture. A copy of a High Cross at the National Heritage Park, Wexford, is painted as some believe crosses were; most visitors agree that it seems very strange.
David M. Wilson wrote that crosses normally painted, perhaps over a modelled layer of plaster. Though when this plaster wears off in the rain, the cut stone figures are often too worn, and indistinct to be very clear. The plaster and paint would have made the scenes much more vibrant and accessable to younger Christians, and new converts.
Ogham inscriptions and the names of the commissioners of the crosses were also often engraved along the base.
References:
“National Monuments in State Care: Ownership & Guardianship, Louth” (PDF). 4 March 2009. Accessed 28th March 2022.
Quinn, B.: The Atlantean Irish, Lilliput Press, December 2004. Accessed 28th March 2022.
Cunliff, B.: An Alternative to ‘Celtic from the East’ and Celtic from the West’, www.cambridge.org. 02 April 2022 2020. Accessed 28th March 2022.
MegalithicIreland:
http://www.megalithicireland.com/High%20Cross%20Home.htm Accessed 28th March 2022
Calvert, Judith Ann: The Early Development of Irish High Crosses and Their Relationship to Scottish Sculpture in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. Ann Arbor, Mich. ; London: U Microfilms International, 1981.
Accessed 28th March 2022
Roe, Helen M. (1981). Monasterboice and its Monuments. Dundalk: County Louth Archaeological Association. Accessed 29th March 2022
De Paor: https://books.google.ie/books
Crosses of Donagh & Mura Cross: https://www.jstor.org/stable/25508883. Accessed 30th March 2022.
Britannica.com: https://www.britannica.com/place/Ireland/The-Norse-invasions-and-their-aftermath Accessed 29th March 2022.
Cork Visual Arts: http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/irish-sculpture/celtic-high-cross-sculptures.htm Accessed 28th March 2022.
OPW: https://heritageireland.ie/ Accessed 29th March 2022.
Map showing distribution of Irish high crosses in ireland. “Harbison, Peter. Irish high crosses” [Syracuse : Distributed by Syracuse University Press], 1994″.
